Environmental Issues
The lives of the People of the Sea are closely bound to
their environment. Pollution of marine and coastal areas
harms their health, sources of food and quality of life.
International obligations
According to the 1982 United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
"States have the obligation to protect and preserve the
marine environment."
UNCLOS, Art 192
UNCLOS further states that, within their territorial
waters, states should take measures to
“prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine
environment from any source”
Ibid. Art 194
Territorial waters are usually defined as lying within a
radius of 12 nautical miles from the shore. However
pollution of the high seas is a global problem.
Causes of marine pollution
Sources from the United Nations Environment Programme
identify land-based pollution as the most significant threat
to the maritime environment.
“The major threats to the health, productivity and
biodiversity of the marine environment result from human
activities on land - in coastal areas and further inland.
Some 80% of the pollution load in the oceans originates from
land-based activities. This includes municipal, industrial
and agricultural wastes and run-off, as well as atmospheric
deposition.”
UNEP Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the
Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities
Atmospheric pollution is largely caused by road vehicles,
aviation and industry. Pollution caused by the maritime
industry is comparatively low. Both the International
Maritime Organisation (IMO) and the International Chamber of
Shipping claim that shipping is the least environmentally
damaging form of commercial transport.
Oil
According to figures quoted by the IMO, the years
1988-2004 saw a massive 80% increase in seabourne trade.
This was mainly due to the increase in the carriage of oil
and petroleum products. In 2004 over two billion tonnes of
oil were transported by sea. Estimates of the quantity of
oil spilt over the same period have steadily reduced. But
major accidents, although rare, have a devasting effect on
the environment.
Ballast water
During the unloading of cargo, water is pumped into the
holds of large ships to stabilise them. When ships are
reloaded, this water is pumped out. If ballast water is
pumped out in a different part of the world, eco-systems can
be harmed by the introduction of non-native species. Both
ballast and bilge water, i.e. waste water collected in the
hull, can carry human pathogens and toxins which, on
discharge, can pollute coastal waters. Outbreaks of cholera
have been attributed to ballast discharge.
Ship “recycling”
The term “recycling” is usually associated with concern
for the environment. However ship recycling, also known as
“ship breaking” at its worst represents the dumping of toxic
waste by rich countries on poor ones.
When a ship comes to the end of its life, some of the
materials used in its construction, e.g. steel, can be
recycled. However older ships may contain substances now
considered dangerous. These include asbestos, paints
containing lead, heavy metals such as cadmium and arsenic,
and even radioactive substances. Strict regulations
regarding the handling of such materials, and the added cost
of insurance, make ship breaking economically unviable in
the West. Therefore most operations now take place in less
developed countries where labour is cheap and regulations
lax.
In 2005, pressure groups Greenpeace and the International
Federation of Human Rights Leagues produced a report called
“End of life: the human cost of breaking ships”. They found
that workers employed in ship breaking were often poor,
unqualified and easily exploited. Despite a lack of
documentation on the part of employers, they found evidence
of frequent casualties, often fatal, and high rates of
cancer and asbestos-related conditions among workers in
addition to atmospheric pollution in shipyards and on
beaches where ship breaking takes place.
The report recognised that ship breaking provides an
important source of income and employment to developing
countries. It calls on governments of the countries where
ship breaking takes place to do more to protect workers. In
addition, ship owners and governments of rich industrialised
countries are urged to take responsibility and ensure that
decommissioned ships are safe for dismantling before they
are sent abroad.
Regulations and agreements
The shipping industry, like many others, is subject to
the pressures of public opinion. Positive attitudes to
environmental protection make good commercial sense. The IMO
cites improvements in energy efficiency, fuel quality and
the use of ships with larger cargo-carrying capacities as
contributing factors to a more environmentally friendly
approach.
The International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships, known as the MARPOL Convention,
entered into force in 1983. It has been signed by 136
countries, representing the owners of 98% of the world’s
shipping tonnage. In 1997 an Annex was adopted on the
Prevention of Air Pollution. Ratification was required by 15
states representing not less than 50% of the world’s
merchant fleet. This took eight years, with the Annex
entering into force in 2005.
The problem of ballast water was specifically addressed
by the IMO in the 2004 Ballast Water Convention. This
requires ratification by 30 countries representing 35% of
world’s shipping tonnage in order to enter into force. By
December 2006, only six countries, representing 0.62%, had
ratified it. The IMO acknowledges that ratification of its
instruments is too slow. Less developed countries may lack
the technology to meet the requirements. There is a need to
support the development of national maritime
administrations.
Some regulation of ship breaking is covered by the Basel
Convention, an international agreement on the movement and
disposal of hazardous waste which entered into force in
1992. In 1995 an amendment was adopted with the aim of
prohibiting the export of hazardous waste from
industrialised countries to less developed countries. Ship
breaking was cited as an area of special concern. Despite
opposition from certain industry groups and nations, the
amendment has been implemented by the European Union.
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